An ethogram is a formal list of all the behaviours associated with a particular species or behaviour pattern in an group of animals. What follows is a list of all the most commonly reported behaviours that have been associated with headshaking. Each behaviour is represented by a line drawing, a description of the behaviour, its usual occurrence, its estimated prevalence in any given sample of headshakers (based on our research and that of others) and any other names that have been offered for the same or similar behaviour.
Ethogram as presented in Taylor, K (2004) An evaluation of equine headshaking syndrome and its management. PhD thesis, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK. Line drawings by Jim McCormick. Copyright held by the British Library.
Vertical headshaking |
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Usually an upward and then downward movement
of the head, generated from the neck
The speed with which this occurs may vary so that it appears as a nod, a snatch or a rapid flick. The extent of the movement may also vary from a small flick to a large arc of movement. May occur as a single spasm or a series. Common occurrence : It is seen at any pace, including at rest, although the trot is the most common. It occurs less commonly at canter where the head movement may more closely resemble a rotary headshake. Other names : ‘headflicking’, ‘head tossing’ (Cook 1992, Madigan et al. 1995), ‘head swinging’, ‘head throwing’ (Madigan et al. 1995). Est. prevalence : 85–100% |
Rubbing nose on foreleg |
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The head is dropped down and a foreleg extended.
Typically the sides of the muzzle or face are then rubbed up and down the foreleg
Common occurrence: May be initiated when the horse is moving but the horse is stationary when this occurs Other names : Est. prevalence : 60-80% |
Rubbing nose on objects |
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The end of the muzzle or side of muzzle and
face are moved backwards and forwards or side to side on a stationary object,
e.g. a stable wall, top of stable door, on a person, on fence posts
Common occurrence: Usually occurs when the horse is stationary and is most often identified when the horse is stabled or at pasture Other names : Est. prevalence : 60-80% |
Snorting |
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Rapid expulsion of air from the nostrils. The
head may be extended or lowered as this occurs. Usually occurs in bouts of several
snorts
Common occurrence: Most commonly occurs when the horse is exercised, at any pace Other names : ‘High blowing’ (Cook 1979b), ‘sneezing’ (Lane and Mair 1987) Est. prevalence : 50-80% |
Flipping of top lip/nose |
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Wriggling of the upper lip. The lip may actually
be lifted in an action similar to the flehmen reaction, without the characteristic
head-raising. Wriggling of the muzzle as if irritated may also occur as the nostrils
are clamped, see clamping Flipping may be confused with a description for the head movement, see vertical headshaking Common occurrence: Usually occurs during exercise , mainly at the walk and trot Other names : Est. prevalence : 20-70% |
Striking out of foreleg |
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The foreleg is raised and extended forward rapidly
whist the hind legs remain in place. The neck may be arched as this occurs. May
be accompanied by a snort or squeal.
Common occurrence: Usually occurs at the faster paces when the horse is particularly agitated Other names : Est. prevalence : 20-60% |
Striking of forelegonto nose |
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As striking outof foreleg except
the head is also lowered so that as foreleg is brought back down it knocks or
strikes the side of the nose or face. Potentially a more severe form of rubbing
the nose on the foreleg. Common occurrence: As striking out, it usually occurs at the faster paces when the horse is particularly agitated Other names : Est. prevalence : 20-60% |
Nasal discharge |
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A stream of liquid visible as it exits one or
both nostrils, usually serous or mucoid. Quantity may vary
Common occurrence: Can occur when the horse is at rest or brought on through exercise, though it is often not apparent until after the rider has dismounted Other names : Est. prevalence : 20-50% |
Dropping nose to the ground |
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The head is lowered until the tip of the muzzle is brushing the floor. Can
occur on any surface. Sometimes the muzzle hovers above the ground, sometimes
it is actively dragged along the ground, as a more severe form of rubbing
on objects. The horse will usually continue to move forward as the head is
lowered and, if occurring on grass, no attempt to eat is made.
Common occurrence: Occurs mainly at the walk and trot Other names : ‘Nose dragging’ ( Newtonet al. 2000), ‘rubbing nose on ground’ (Mills et al. 2002a) Est. prevalence : 10-50% |
Twisting/rotary headshaking |
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The head is thrown in a twisting motion from the poll and the nose is brought
out to side. Usually occurs one or twice within an bout or attack and the horse
often rushes (canters or rears) at the same time or immediately afterward
Common occurrence: Usually occurs at canter Other names: ‘head throwing’ see vertical headshaking Est. prevalence : 10-40% |
Horizontal headshaking |
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Sideways snatching of the head. As vertical headshaking it may appear
as a rapid sideways tilting of the head or, more rarely, shaking as if the ears
are irritated
Common occurrence: Usually occurs at the walk or trot Other names : Est. prevalence : 10-30% |
Odd head carriage |
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The head may be carried higher than usual or lower (see dropping nose
to the ground). The nose may be poked to one side or the head twisted or
tilted to one side (see fig.). The head may also be head close to the chest in
an ‘overbent’ position.
Common occurrence: Usually occurs at the walk or trot. Headpoking might also occur momentarily at rest. Other names : ‘overbent’, ‘head poking’, ‘nose poking’ Est. prevalence : 10-30% |
Hiding the head |
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The head, and predominantly the eyes may be shielded
by being placed under another horse’s tail or in bushes or the head leant
against a wall. Predominantly the nose may be placed in a bucket of water or
pressed against a wall. The entire head may also be placed inside the stable
for example with the rest of the body outside.
Common occurrence: Usually when stationary in the stable or when grazing. Placing the head under another horse’s tail may also be attempted at the walk Other names : ‘head pressing’ ( Newtonet al. 2000), ‘head banging’ (Newton et al. 2000), in this case the head is repeatedly knocked against a wall. Est. prevalence : 10-30% |
If you have any you think would be of interest, please email me ktaylor@lincoln.ac.uk.
© Katy Taylor, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK